Insects, Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Food

Module PHYTOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AND MYCOTOXINS

The course aims to provide students with knowledge of the main mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins of relevance to the agri-food sector, with particular emphasis on their biological, epidemiological, diagnostic, and management aspects. Particular attention will be paid to the factors that promote fungal contamination and mycotoxin production in different food matrices, as well as to prevention and control strategies throughout the agri-food chain. Students will acquire the ability to recognize and interpret the main issues associated with contamination by mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins and to apply the acquired knowledge to risk assessment and management, with particular reference to food quality and safety.

By the end of the course, students will have acquired theoretical knowledge and practical skills concerning the main mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins of relevance to the agri-food sector. Students will also be able to understand the relationships between pathogen, host, and environment, use the main diagnostic methods, and apply the principles of integrated and sustainable disease management. Furthermore, students will acquire the skills needed to carry out bibliographic searches independently and appropriately in order to achieve the learning objectives.

The intended learning objectives will be achieved through lectures and laboratory activities.

The learning outcomes are structured according to the five Dublin Descriptors:

Knowledge and Understanding

The student will be able to:

• describe the main morphological, biological, and ecological characteristics of fungi of phytopathological and food-related importance;
• recognize the main groups of fungi responsible for plant diseases and alterations of food commodities;
• describe the main stages of fungal infection, colonization, and disease development;
• explain the role of environmental factors in pathogen spread and the development of fungal contamination;
• define mycotoxins and describe their origin, characteristics, and relevance to food safety;
• identify the main mycotoxigenic fungal genera, with particular reference to Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium;
• describe the main mycotoxins of relevance to food safety and the food matrices most susceptible to contamination;
• explain the relationship between the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi, mycotoxin production, environmental conditions, and food matrix characteristics;
• illustrate the main approaches for the prevention and control of fungal and mycotoxin contamination throughout the food chain.

Assessment methods

Knowledge and understanding will be assessed mainly through an oral examination and the discussion of diagnostic images, evaluating the accuracy of the content and the appropriate use of scientific terminology, in accordance with the Guidelines.

Applying Knowledge and Understanding

Students will be able to:

- apply the acquired knowledge to the recognition of the main fungal alterations affecting plant products intended for human consumption;

- use morphological, biological, and diagnostic criteria for the identification of the main fungi of agri-food relevance;

- interpret cases of fungal and mycotoxin contamination at different stages of the food chain;

- apply the principles of fungal and mycotoxin risk prevention to food storage, processing, distribution, and serving;

- use the acquired knowledge to identify the main risk factors associated with fungal growth and mycotoxin production.

Assessment methods

Practical skills will be developed through laboratory activities, observation, and discussion of case studies and will be assessed during the oral examination.

Making Judgements

By the end of the course, students will be able to:

- critically analyse risk situations associated with the presence of phytopathogenic and mycotoxigenic fungi;

- assess the influence of environmental, storage, and processing conditions on fungal growth and mycotoxin production;

- compare different strategies for the prevention and management of contamination;

- interpret data and information relating to the phytosanitary and hygienic-sanitary quality of food matrices;

- critically assess the suitability of the main prevention and control strategies in relation to the specific matrix and stage of the food chain.

Assessment methods

The student's ability to make independent judgements will be assessed through the discussion of specific problems and case studies during teaching activities and the oral examination.

Communication Skills

Students will:

- present the acquired knowledge clearly and scientifically accurately;

- use the technical terminology of mycology, plant pathology, and food safety appropriately;

- discuss and support their assessments of issues related to fungal and mycotoxin contamination;

- communicate possible risk prevention and management strategies using terminology appropriate to the professional context.

Assessment methods

Communication skills will be assessed during interactive activities and, in particular, through the quality of the student's presentation and argumentation during the oral examination

Learning Skills

Students will develop the ability to:

- independently explore the topics covered during the course in greater depth;

- independently consult the scientific literature;

- use plant pathology databases;

- present, using appropriate scientific terminology, the biological, epidemiological, diagnostic, and management aspects of phytopathogenic and mycotoxigenic fungi;

- keep up to date with innovations in diagnostics, biocontrol, and food safety;

- clearly communicate and present the results of laboratory activities and the interpretation of experimental data..

Assessment Methods

Learning skills will be fostered through the consultation of scientific and bibliographic materials and will also be assessed through the student's ability to establish connections between different topics and provide in-depth discussion during the oral examination

The course consists of 21 hours of lectures (Didactic Delivery – DE) and 42 hours of practical and interactive activities (Interactive Teaching – DI).

Didactic Delivery (DE)

Lectures will be delivered using multimedia presentations, explanatory diagrams, and discussions of the main biological, epidemiological, and management aspects of grapevine fungal diseases and mycotoxins of oenological relevance. During the course, examples from the most recent scientific literature will be analysed, and the main integrated disease management protocols adopted in modern viticulture will be presented and discussed.

Interactive Teaching (DI)

Practical activities are designed to apply theoretical knowledge, develop diagnostic skills, and enhance students’ ability to critically interpret experimental results and practical situations.

Practical activities will be carried out in the laboratory and, where possible, in affiliated farms.

The organisation of the activities will enable students to develop both theoretical knowledge and practical skills in the diagnosis, prevention, and sustainable management of the main fungal diseases affecting grapevine.

Students may use Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a study support tool, in compliance with current regulations, including those concerning copyright and the use of intellectual works, as described in Section 5.1 of the relevant guidelines (https://www.unict.it/it/ateneo/cidia-centro-l%E2%80%99informatica-la-digitalizzazione-e-l%E2%80%99intelligenza-artificiale)

Should the course be delivered in blended or distance-learning mode, the necessary adjustments to the activities described above may be introduced in order to ensure compliance with the course programme set out in this syllabus.

Attendance at teaching activities is strongly recommended, particularly for practical sessions, during which students acquire essential practical skills in disease recognition, pathogen identification, and the application of the main diagnostic techniques. In order to take the final examination, students are strongly advised to attend at least 70% of the scheduled teaching activities.

Attendance monitoring: Each lecturer establishes a method for monitoring attendance. At the end of the course, the lecturer submits to the Student Administration Office the list of students who have not fulfilled the attendance requirement.

LECTURES (21 hours)

1. Introduction to Mycology and Plant Pathology

General concepts of mycology and plant pathology. Disease and disorder. Biotic and abiotic agents. Importance of plant pathogenic fungi in agri-food production. Impact of fungal diseases on the quality, quantity, shelf life, and safety of food products.

2. Biology of Fungi and Oomycetes

General characteristics, classification, and morphology of fungi and oomycetes. Mycelium and hyphae. Vegetative and reproductive structures. Sexual and asexual reproduction. Spores and structures involved in survival and dispersal. Main aspects of fungal and oomycete life cycles.

3. Plant Pathogenic Fungi and Epidemiology of Fungal Diseases

Main groups of plant pathogenic fungi of agri-food importance. Mechanisms of infection and colonization of plant tissues. Host–pathogen interactions. The disease triangle: host, pathogen, and environment. Disease cycle. Sources of inoculum, dispersal, and survival. Environmental factors predisposing plants to infection.

4. Fungal Diseases and Post-Harvest Disorders of Plant Products

Main fungal diseases and disorders affecting plant products intended for food, with particular reference to Mediterranean agri-food chains. Fungal disorders occurring during harvesting, transport, storage, distribution, and marketing. Factors predisposing products to post-harvest rots. Effects on food quality and safety.

5. Mycotoxigenic Fungi

Definition and characteristics of mycotoxigenic fungi. Main genera of agri-food importance: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps, Alternaria, Monilinia, Sclerotinia, Rhizopus, Mucor, and Colletotrichum. Storage diseases of pome fruits, including scab caused by Venturia and Fusicladium.

Ecology of mycotoxigenic fungi. Relationship between fungal occurrence, toxigenic potential, and contamination of food matrices. Factors affecting mycotoxin production.

6. Mycotoxins of Agri-Food Importance

Definition, classification, and general characteristics of mycotoxins. Main mycotoxins of relevance to food safety: aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and patulin.   Predisposing environmental and agronomic factors. Influence of temperature, water activity, humidity, mechanical and biological damage, and storage conditions. Particular reference to major Mediterranean agri-food commodities: cereals and cereal products, nuts, spices, fruit and vegetable products, grapes, and grape-derived products.Methods for mycotoxin determination

8. Ecology of Mycotoxigenic Fungi

Ecology of mycotoxigenic fungi and environmental conditions influencing their growth and development. Relationship between fungal occurrence, toxigenic potential, and contamination of food matrices. Factors affecting mycotoxin production.

9. Main Abiotic Post-Harvest Disorders

Main abiotic disorders affecting plant products during post-harvest handling and storage. Physiological alterations and damage associated with environmental and storage conditions.

10. Diagnosis of Plant Pathogenic and Mycotoxigenic Fungi

Principles of traditional diagnosis. Observation of symptoms and signs. Isolation and identification of fungi. Principles of molecular methods for fungal identification.

11. Strategies for Prevention and Control

Strategies for the prevention and control of fungal and mycotoxin contamination throughout the food chain: pre-harvest, harvesting, transport, storage, processing, and distribution. Good agricultural and hygiene practices. Control of environmental and storage conditions. Principles of integrated and sustainable management.

12. European Regulatory Framework for Mycotoxins in Food

General principles of the European regulatory framework concerning the presence of mycotoxins in food. Maximum levels, sampling, official controls, and management of non-compliance. Prevention of mycotoxin-related risks and protection of food quality and safety

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES – 42 HOURS

1. Microscopy and Fungal Identification

Use of optical microscopes and stereomicroscopes. Observation and recognition of the main vegetative and reproductive structures of fungi. Preparation of microscope slides and observation of fungal samples.

2. Isolation and Identification of Fungi

Collection and preparation of samples. Isolation in pure culture. Main culture media. Observation of colony morphology and identification of the main fungal genera of agri-food relevance.

3. Recognition of Fungal Deterioration in Food Commodities

Observation of plant products and food commodities affected by fungal deterioration. Recognition of symptoms and signs. Association between fungal deterioration, causal agents, and predisposing conditions

4. Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Food Matrices

Observation and identification of the main mycotoxigenic fungi, with particular reference to Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. Analysis of different food matrices and assessment of the main risk factors for contamination.

5. Molecular Diagnostics

Extraction of nucleic acids from fungal samples and/or plant matrices. Setup and application of PCR techniques, with an introduction to qPCR and LAMP applications. Interpretation of diagnostic results.

6. Sampling and Mycotoxin Analysis

Practical principles of sampling food matrices. Sample preparation. Demonstration of the main methods for mycotoxin detection and quantification. Interpretation of analytical results.

7. Field Activities

Field observation of the main fungal diseases affecting crops of agri-food interest. Recognition of symptoms and signs, assessment of predisposing environmental factors, and collection of samples for subsequent laboratory observations.

8. Individual and group work by students: case study analysis 

CONTRIBUTION TO THE UN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The course contributes, in particular, to the following Sustainable Development Goals:

Goal 2 – Zero Hunger: promotion of food security and reduction of agricultural product losses caused by fungal diseases and contamination.

Goal 3 – Good Health and Well-being: prevention of consumer exposure to mycotoxins and other risks associated with fungal contamination of food.

Goal 12 – Responsible Consumption and Production: prevention of food deterioration and contamination, improvement of shelf life, and reduction of food waste.

Goal 13 – Climate Action: understanding the effects of climate change on the epidemiology of plant pathogenic fungi, the distribution of mycotoxigenic fungi, and the risk of contamination of food products.

Testi consigliati

Matta A. et al. - Fondamenti di Patologia vegetale.(2017). Patron Editore, Bologna

Belli G.-. Elementi di Patologia Vegetale (seconda edizione, 2012), Editore Piccin, Padova

De Cicco V., Bertolini P., Salerno M.G. Patologia post-raccolta dei prodotti vegetali. Piccin Ed. 2008

Pollini A. (2024). Micopatologia e micologia. Manuale applicato. Edagricole.

Teaching materials provided by the lecturer

Recommended Texts for Further Reading

Agrios, G.N. Plant Pathology, 6th ed. Elsevier.

Current European Union legislation on contaminants and mycotoxins in food.

Textbooks, technical documents, and scientific publications on plant pathogenic fungi, mycotoxigenic fungi, and food safety.

Documents and scientific opinions issued by the main national and European institutions responsible for food safety.

Learning outcomes will be assessed through an oral examination.

The examination will last approximately 30–40 minutes and will consist of questions on the topics covered during the course, w

During the examination, diagnostic images, microscope slides, or case studies may be used to assess the student’s ability to apply the knowledge acquired.

The following aspects will be assessed:

knowledge of the subject matter;

scientific accuracy of the answers;

appropriate use of technical terminology and presentation skills;

The examination will also assess the achievement of the learning outcomes related to the five Dublin Descriptors.

Final Grading Criteria

The final grade will be awarded according to the following criteria:

Fail

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates limited and fragmented knowledge of the fundamental topics.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student provides superficial and largely incomplete analyses.

Language and communication skills: The student uses inappropriate terminology and expresses concepts in an uncertain and unclear manner.

18–20

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates superficial and partial knowledge and understanding of the topics.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student performs analyses and syntheses that are incomplete and lack sufficient depth.

Language and communication skills: The student uses subject-specific terminology, although not always correctly.

21–23

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates sufficiently accurate knowledge of the fundamental aspects of the topics covered.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student performs analyses and syntheses that are almost complete, although not particularly in-depth.

Language and communication skills: The student uses subject-specific terminology in a simple but appropriate manner.

24–26

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates good knowledge and understanding of the topics covered.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student demonstrates good analytical and synthesis skills and presents the topics in a coherent manner.

Language and communication skills: The student uses subject-specific terminology confidently and correctly.

27–29

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates complete, in-depth, and well-integrated knowledge of the topics covered.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student performs complete and in-depth analyses and syntheses.

Language and communication skills: The student uses subject-specific terminology confidently, accurately, and fluently.

30–30 with honours

Knowledge and understanding: The student demonstrates complete, in-depth, broad, and independently developed knowledge and understanding of the topics covered.

Analysis and synthesis skills: The student is able to independently and comprehensively organise the knowledge acquired and demonstrates the ability to make autonomous evaluations and establish relevant connections between different topics.

Language and communication skills: The student uses subject-specific terminology confidently, accurately, articulately, and fluently.

Learning assessment may also be carried out on-line, should the conditions require it. To ensure equal opportunities and in compliance with current laws, students may request a personal interview in order to plan any compensatory and/or dispensatory measures based on educational objectives and specific needs. Students can also contact the CInAP (Centro per l’integrazione Attiva e Partecipata — Servizi per le Disabilità e/o DSA) through the referring professor within the department, (https://www.cinap.unict.it/content/referenti).